Internal and External Force of Change for Synergetic Solutions Essay Example for Free

Internal and External Force of Change for Synergetic Solutions Essay Synergetic Solutions lets us know that change is something that will happen no matter what we do. Executing change is not as simple as acknowledging the need for change. Synergetic Solutions understands the internal and external factors that have required a change to take place, and desire to improve operations but executing the change can be difficult when met with conflict. Both employees and leaders must understand, through good communication, the need for change and the way by which to achieve that change successfully. To survive in recent market environment organizations need to change constantly with current conditions that are constantly, who can accept change survive and who cannot accept change and suffer the consequences. Changes brought a effect of strategic initiatives within a company and how it affects work design and organization culture. While change is occurring you can see opposition to change at individual and organizational levels, change agent has to implement various tactics to restrain the resistance and dead organization step reward to work on new strategies. Synergetic solution Inc. is a $6 million company in the business of system integration assembling and reselling leading computers brands. It has 300 employees mostly in the sales and service departments working in five locations across the east–coast. most employees in this trading organization possess only basic computer assembling and trouble shooting skills, while a few technically higher skilled individuals oper ates as the specialists. Harold red, chief executive officers made changes in to the network solution business of designing and implementing complete computing networks. He got four of synergetic brightest engineers trained and certified on networking technologies. One internal factor that has caused Synergetic Solutions to implement change is limited skills of employees. Most employees have basic skills to complete tasks but how many  continue with education hours to keep progressing and learning? As with Synergetic Solutions, most employees have the basic computer skills needed but only a few employees are specialists in a chosen field (UOP, 2010). Being a specialist requires more time, training, and education which most employees will not do individually but will do collectively within the organization if the organization provides opportunity. For any change to occur positively, employees need to be trained to implement new routines and daily processing of tasks that increase skills and abilities of eac h employee. With 300 employees who mainly work in sales and service, Synergetic Solutions must implement change to educate these employees to expand skills and abilities.Another internal factor for change is to increase revenue. The goal of Synergetic Solutions is to increase revenue every quarter and by 80 percent over the next nine months. To be successful and meet the goals of earned revenue, a change must take place. Synergetic Solutions is taking a look at the certification and training needed to redirect the organization from reselling leading computers to designing and implementing tasks.

The Sin Tax Bill How Its Affect the Bar Industry in the Philippines Essay Example for Free

The Sin Tax Bill How Its Affect the Bar Industry in the Philippines Essay In 2011, there was a tax increase on alcoholic beverages. The tax increase depended on the alcohol content and the net retail price of the beverage. This however had little effect on bars/pubs in the Philippines because the tax increase was not significant. Many consumers did not feel the price change too much because of the relatively high mark-ups at bars/pubs. PROSPECTS In 2011, the Philippine government was reviewing a bill which proposes to increase alcohol and tobacco taxes quite significantly in the Philippines. If the bill is passed, this may negatively impact sales in bars/pubs in the Philippines. The higher prices of alcohol may result in less alcohol consumption by consumers when they dine-in at bars/pubs. INTRODUCTION MANILA, Philippines—A sin tax on cigarettes and alcohol dampened the New Year party spirit when it was introduced in the Philippines Tuesday, as part of a government bid to boost finances. Many stores started selling tobacco and drink at inflated prices before midnight, ahead of the official implementation of the tax hikes on January 1, 2013 hitting partygoers in the pocket. Tax on cigarettes will gradually be raised to P30 ($0.72) per pack by 2017, roughly doubling the current price to around 52 pesos. Duty on alcohol will also increase gradually until 2017, increasing the price of a bottle of beer by 23.50 pesos, with varying levels for other drinks including wine and spirits. It will be further increased by four percent each year thereafter. The new prices compared to countries like Singapore, for example, are still low, but for the ordinary Filipinos they are expensive, said Laudemer Angeles, a 33-year-old shop owner in the town of Bacoor, south of Manila. Many of my customers were complaining about the higher prices and were not too happy when they bought their booze and smokes for their parties last night. Anti-smoking campaigner Emer Rojas said he hoped the new taxes would lead to a gradual decline in the number of people suffering from tobacco-related illness. I think the sin taxes should even be raised higher, he told AFP. But we commend President Aquino for showing his resolve in signing the law. The government has said that the country of 100 million has the highest incidence of smoking in the region, with tobacco-related diseases costing the country P177 billion ($4.3 billion) last year. The new taxes aim to raise P33 billion ($800 million) this year alone, gradually increasing over the coming years. A large percentage of the money will go towards the government’s healthcare program. The government first asked Congress to raise taxes on â€Å"sin† products as early as 1997, but a strong lobby by tobacco manufacturers stifled change. The lobby included members of Congress representing tobacco-growing regions as well as powerful cigarette companies that enjoyed one of the lowest tobacco taxes in Southeast Asia. Published on Tuesday, January 1st, 2013 Link: http://www.euromonitor.com/cafes-bars-in-the-philippines/report http://newsinfo.inquirer.net/333451/philippines-sin-tax-introduced-dampens-new-year-fun

Ouchterlony Double Diffusion Assay Biology Essay

Ouchterlony Double Diffusion Assay Biology Essay Introduction: Polyclonal antibodies are produced by different B- lymphocytes in response to the same antigen, which recognise different parts of the antigen. Because the human immune system cannot know in advance what pathogens it will confront, it prepares for future infections by creating millions of different antibodies. Each of these highly selective proteins recognizes and binds to a specific target, or antigen, then signals other components of the immune system to destroy the target. These naturally-occurring polyclonal antibodies play a crucial role in triggering an immune response Polyclonal antibodies are routinely used as ligands for the preparation of immunoaffinity columns labeling reagents for the qualitative and quantitative determination of molecules in a variety of assays, such as double diffusion, radial immuno-diffusion, ammonium sulphate precipitation and ion exchange chromatography. Aim: The aim of this practical is to compare the purification of serum IgG by ammonium sulphate and ion exchange chromatography. The first purification step will normally involve a method such as fractional precipitation with increasing concentrations of ammonium sulphate. This method is not designed to achieve total purification, but to remove as much contaminant protein as possible whilst retaining all the protein of interest. Most proteins will precipitate from solution at high salt concentrations, but the salt concentration required to precipitate them varies considerably. Ammonium sulphate will be used as it is possible to set up salt concentration which will differentially precipitate serum proteins. Ammonium sulphate precipitation procedure was carried out to separate the serum proteins into four fractions. A fraction containing the serum protein to be purified can then be precipitated and collected, leaving behind any protein which is still soluble. The second method of purifying the IgG serum protein is ion exchange chromatography. This is a widely applied method of protein purification and uses positively charged groups or negatively charged groups immobilised onto a hydrophilic support, in this case DE- 52. Serum Proteins with an opposite net charge to that of the immobilised exchanger will bind to the column. Other serum proteins will pass through. Because the charge on proteins changes with pH, it is possible to attach a protein to the exchanger at one pH, then elute it by changing the buffer. Alternatively proteins can be eluted by passing an increasing concentration of salt through the column. The method works best for IgG which have high isoelectric points, at about pH 8.6. This method can also be used how to separate different subclasses of IgG. Ammonium sulphate is less effective in the purification if IgG, but it is useful for the isolation of large IgM. Samples of each fraction will then be separated by electrophoresis on an agarose gel. Antibody will then be allowed to diffuse towards the electrophoresed proteins from a trough cut parallel to the direction of electrophoresis. The proteins also diffuse from the positions they have reached after electrophoresis and precipitin arcs form where antigen and antibody reach equivalent concentrations. This technique can be used to determine whether a fraction contains any IgG and determine the degree of contamination of the IgG with other proteins Materials and Method: Ammonium Sulphate fractionation Procedure 0.25 ml of saturated ammonium was added to 1ml of human serum, to produce a solution which 20% saturated with respect to ammonium sulphate. The solution was mixed it was allowed to stand in an ice for 15 minutes, and was centrifuged for 15 minutes at 1500 rotation per minute. The supernatant was poured and pallet was retained as fraction 1 The supernatant from fraction 1; 0.35 was added to bring to 35 % saturated with respect to ammonium sulphate; the solution was left in an ice for 15minutes and it was centrifuged to recover the precipitate, the supernatant was poured in another tube while the pallet was retained as fraction 2 0.5 ml of saturated ammonium was added to the supernatant of fraction 2 to bring the solution to 50% , the solution was left in ice for 15 minutes to precipitate, it was centrifuged for 15 minutes the pallet was kept as fraction 3 while the supernatant containing 50% of protein was kept as fraction 4 the absorbance of the fraction was measured at 280nm the absorbance of 1mg/ml and 0.5mg of bovine serum albumin was measured was measured Before the immunological analysis the fraction salt content were reduced by dialysis against buffer. 0.2 (For more information refer to UEL hand out on protein purification) DE 52 ion exchange chromatography Serum provides was pre dialysed against 10mM trs/barbitone buffer pH 8.6 and chromatography column containing about 2mls of DE 52 which it has been equilibrated in the same buffer The column was allowed to run until any overlying buffer has run into the DE-52 gel avoiding the column to dry Ouchterlony Double Diffusion Assay The fractions collected from ion exchange chromatography were determined for the presence of IgG by using ouchterlony double diffusion method. The collected fractions were run against an anti-IgG antibody in an agarose gel. The centre well were filled with 3ul of anti-IgG and 3ul of the eluted fractions into the surrounding holes. Immunodiffusion was slowed to proceed for 24-48 hours an antigen-antibody precipitin line was observed. Single Radial immune diffusion This as a quantitative technique whereby the antigen is allowed diffuse from a well into a gel which contained its specific antibody, a precipitin will form when antigen concentration is equal to the concentration of the antibody in the gel. Immunoelectrophoresis MATERIALS AND METHODS Preparation of antigen Blood samples were collected from ten clinically healthy cows using sterile disposable needles (1.2 40 mm), clarified by centrifugation (1000 g, 15 min) and diluted 1:1 with phosphate buffer saline (PBS, pH 7.2). Then equal volumes of diluted serum and saturated ammonium sulphate were mixed by slowly addition of the saturated ammonium sulphate solution with gentle stirring. After centrifugation (1000 g for 20 min), the precipitate was washed twice with 50% saturated ammonium sulphate solution. The final precipitate was dissolved in PBS followed by overnight dialysis against PBS. Protein concentration was quantified by a coomassie dye binding assay (Bradford, 1976), using bovine serum albumin (BSA) as the standard. Final protein concentration of solution adjusted to 1 mg/mL. Immunization of rabbits with bovine immunoglobulins Three hundred micro liters of prepared bovine immunoglobulins (1 mg/mL) in PBS was emulsified with equal volumes of Freunds complete adjuvant (Sigma) and inoculated intramuscularly (I M) into three 6-month-old New Zealand White rabbits. The rabbits were fed regular commercial diets. The second and third inoculations were performed on days 21 and 35 with Freunds incomplete adjuvant (Sigma), and the fourth inoculation was done on day 45 without any adjuvant. After the final immunization, blood samples were taken from the rabbits and production of antibody was investigated by double diffusion and ELISA tests. This study was approved by the Regional Medical Sciences Research Ethics Committee of Tabriz University of Medical Sciences. Purification of rabbit anti-bovine immunoglobulins Immunized rabbits sera were collected and precipitated by 50% ammonium sulfate. After dialysis against PBS and tris-Phosphate buffer (40 tris and 25 mM phosphate, pH 8.2), ion-exchange chromatography was done on a DEAE-Sepharose fast flow (Pharmacia) in a laboratory made column at a flow rate of 0.25 mL/min. Protein concentration adjusted to 100 mg/mL and passed through the column. The column was washed in two steps using Tris- Phosphate buffer for first washing step and Tris-phosphate buffer containing100 mM NaCl for second washing step. The eluted proteins were collected in 5 mL fractions and analyzed by SDSPAGE. SDS-PAGE analysis The purity of various IgG preparations was checked using sodium dodecyl sulphate polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (SDS-PAGE) under reduced conditions as described by Laemmli (Laemmli, 1970). The final concentration of polyacrylamide solution was 13%. Samples were boiled with 2% SDS for 10 min and were loaded on the electrophoresis gel. After separation, the proteins were stained with Coomassie Brilliant Blue G 250 (Blakesley and Boezi, 1977). Destaining was carried out in distilled water. Conjugation of rabbit IgG with peroxidase The conjugation was performed by the periodate method (Nakane and Kawaoi, 1974) with some modifications. First, 4 mg of peroxidase (Sigma) was dissolved in 0.5 mL of distilled water in darkglass container. Then sodium periodate (Merck) was added to the solution, and the container was kept on a stirrer for 20 min at room tempe-rature. The mixture was dialyzed against acetate buffer (0.1 mM, pH 4.4) at 4Â °C overnight followed by addition of 10 ÃŽ ¼l of carbonate-bicarbonate buffer (0.2 M, pH 9.5). Eight milligrams of purified IgG in 1 mL of carbonate-bicarbonate buffer (10 mM, pH 9.5) was add-ed to the active enzyme, and the container was put on the stirrer. Then 150 ÃŽ ¼l of fresh sodium borohydrate solution (Merck) was added to the above solution and was kept at 4Â °C for 1.5 h on the stirrer. The product was then dialyzed overnight against PBS at 4Â °C and 1% BSA (Sigma) along with addition of 0.01% sodium mirth-iolate (Merck). Enzyme linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) Direct ELISA was used to determine the titer of HRP conjugated rabbit IgG against bovine immunoglobulins. 100 ÃŽ ¼l of prepared bovine, sheep and goat immunoglobulins, which was diluted 1:100 in PBS (10 ÃŽ ¼g), was added to each well of a 96-well micro titer plate and incubated at 4Â °C for 24 h. The wells were washed with PBSTween (0.05% Tween 20) three times and blocked with 200 ÃŽ ¼l of blocking solution (PBS-0.5% Tween 20). After a washing step, 100 ÃŽ ¼l of 1:400, 1:800, 1:1600, 1:3200, 1:6400 and 1:12800 dilutions of prepared HRP conjugated anti-bovine immunoglobulins were added to each well. The reaction was developed using 100 ÃŽ ¼l of 3, 3, 5, 5- tetramethylbenzidine (TMB) as substrate and the absorbance was determined at 450 nm after stopping the reaction by 5% sulfuric acid (Sigma). Results: RESULTS Production of rabbit anti-bovine immunoglobulins In order to survey production of antibody in rabbits and evaluating effectiveness of immunization, double diffusion and ELISA tests were performed. The titer of polyclonal anti-bovine IgG in double diffusion test was 8, which appeared as a sharp band between antigen and antibody wells. The titer of anti-bovine immunoglobulins determined by ELISA was 16000. Purification of rabbit anti-bovine immunoglobulins Purification of IgG rich fraction from immunized rabbit sera by ammonium sulfate precipitation followed by DEAE ion-exchange chromatography resulted in a highly pure fraction (first peak). The protein content of this fraction was 45 mg which was about one third of primary protein content (Figure 1). SDS-PAGE analysis Figure 2 shows the results of SDS-PAGE for determining the purity of IgG, which was purified by ion-exchange chromatography. A distinct polypeptide band with molecular weight about 50 kDa corresponding to rabbit IgG heavy chains. The diffused bands between molecular weights of 20 30 kDa correspond to rabbit IgG light chains. (Figure 2) The SDS-PAGE analysis showed that purification of IgG by ion-exchange chromatography resulted in a highly pure product. Discussion: The purification of immunoglobulins presents several practical complications, especially for polyclonal antibody production (Verdoliva et al., 2000). We used ionexchange chromatography for purification of rabbit IgG polyclonal antibody. Separation and recovery of proteins from ion exchange chromatographic media are affected by factors such as buffer type and pH, length of gradient, flow rate of the mobile phase, ionic strength and nature of counter ion, and characteristic of the proteins. The selection of ideal conditions for protein purification involves changing some or all of these parameters (Tishchenko et al., 1998). This technique was well established in our laboratory for purification of IgG antibody (Baradaran et al., 2006; Javanmard et al., 2005; Majidi et al., 2005). Furthermore, ion-exchange chromatography is considered as an economical alternative to affinity and immunoaffinity chromatography. After purification step we obtained a protein with approximate purity of 98%. SDS-PAGE analysis showed that the protein with approximately 50 kDa MW was rabbit IgG heavy chains. The light chain of rabbit IgG appeared as a diffused band of 20 30 kDa molecular weights. It is likely that diffused band of light chain could be related to different level of deglycosilation of protein during manipulation process. Conclusion:

A Description of My Room: The Comfortable Chill Room :: descriptive essay, personal narrative,

My room is what everyone calls â€Å"The Chill Room†. In this room there are all kinds of items that been collected throughout the years. There are several black lights, posters, and a bumping stereo. And even though my room is small it easily holds everything to make it comfortable and chill. At night the black lights engulf the whole ceiling with light. The light includes a tinge of blue which emitted by one of the black lights. This light is a 42 inch double fixture which was painted fluorescent blue. The light from the two tubes hits the blue coloring, giving the blue to everything in the room. The other black light has an all black fixture that emits no color except the color it all ready produces and measured the same as the other black light (42†). There are few items in this room that are black light sensitive; from posters to glass material the room has many highlight glowing. The black light gives a lot of character to the room in the sense of whoever enters the room, suddenly changes color. Clothes go from white to light purple and the color of the clothes sometimes changes. Different lighting effects are also used to help give the room more of a relaxing and chill environment. A small light covered in blue plastic wrap sit in place inside my closet. Thi s light is bright enough only to light just the closet, yet it does not impede on the acquired blue tinge. A dark blue lava lamp which is on day and night is placed near my television, which also gives the room a unique look to it. A large variety of posters fill every wall that represents few interests. The majority of the posters consist of ICP (Insane Clown Posse). These posters were collected through the internet, and some were given by friends. Anyone who walks into the room can tell what type of music is preferred by looking at some the posters on the walls. Such artists as SPM (South Park Mexicans) from Huston, Tx. the whole crew from Metallica, and an almost life size picture of a pit-bull, it all gives the room a nice touch of style. You can see a few pictures of cars on the walls: Ferraris, BMW, racing cars and customized cars. Last but not least the stereo system. This SONY three disk CD player is capable of producing 500watts of sound.

The Picture of Dorian Gray Essay: The Soul of Dorian -- The Picture of

The Picture of Dorian Gray "The soul is a terrible reality. It can be bought and sold. It can be poisoned or made perfect. There's a soul in each one of us. I know it." This is a statement made by Dorian Gray to his best friend, Lord Henry, a few hours after he realizes that his behavior of the last eighteen years has been absolutely terrible. First I shall explain the way Dorian Gray lost his ability to be good and how he found it again eighteen years later. After Sybil Vane's death, the young lad was first seized by terrible remorse. After abandoning her in the theatre with most cruel words, he reconsidered his action during the night and was ready to forgive her and marry her, as he had promised. So the news of her suicide was of course quite an unpleasant shock to him. Unfortunately Lord Henry was there to influence him with his corrupt and selfish personality. He taught... ...the soul exists. The soul is a "terrible reality", because it is stronger than any physical phenomenon of belief or disbelief. Whatever you do, it always remains in the depth of your heart and you will always depend on it, as you depend on your reality. If you poison it by neglect or ignorance, you try to sell it for what seems a cheap and easy price, but you cannot sell and separate from a reality that you are a part of; the unavoidable price of "buying" it back is very, very, high. The Picture of Dorian Gray Essay: The Soul of Dorian -- The Picture of The Picture of Dorian Gray "The soul is a terrible reality. It can be bought and sold. It can be poisoned or made perfect. There's a soul in each one of us. I know it." This is a statement made by Dorian Gray to his best friend, Lord Henry, a few hours after he realizes that his behavior of the last eighteen years has been absolutely terrible. First I shall explain the way Dorian Gray lost his ability to be good and how he found it again eighteen years later. After Sybil Vane's death, the young lad was first seized by terrible remorse. After abandoning her in the theatre with most cruel words, he reconsidered his action during the night and was ready to forgive her and marry her, as he had promised. So the news of her suicide was of course quite an unpleasant shock to him. Unfortunately Lord Henry was there to influence him with his corrupt and selfish personality. He taught... ...the soul exists. The soul is a "terrible reality", because it is stronger than any physical phenomenon of belief or disbelief. Whatever you do, it always remains in the depth of your heart and you will always depend on it, as you depend on your reality. If you poison it by neglect or ignorance, you try to sell it for what seems a cheap and easy price, but you cannot sell and separate from a reality that you are a part of; the unavoidable price of "buying" it back is very, very, high.

Walmart ecommerce ops Essay examples -- essays research papers

What is Wal-Mart dong that seems to fit a definition of â€Å"successful† e-commerce operations? What cold they do better? How does shopping on-line compare to your experience looking for a similar type of item at a bricks-and-mortar store? How does this site compare to other experiences you’ve had with e-commerce   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  When you talk about Wal-Mart the first thing that you have to remember is that they are the largest retailer in the world. Wal-Mart employs more people in the United States than any other company and is second only to the federal government in the number of employees that they have on the payroll. These are important facts to consider in that due to their tremendous size, Wal-Mart has an enormous effect on the economy and the way that business is conducted. In many instances, if a company wants to continue to do business they have to either follow what Wal-Mart is doing or attempt to compete against Wal-Mart in some other fashion. It is not unreasonable to state that Wal-Mart is the reason why many businesses are in business today. They were forced out by the sheer size of Wal-Mart.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  So, with this in mind it is interesting to note that Wal-Mart ranks only third on the e-commerce scale behind Dell computers and Amazon. (Sullivan 2004) What is the reason for this? It’s hard to say and point to one specific reason why Wal-Mart doesn’t lead this list but maybe looking at the criteria outlined in the background reading will help to answer this question. (Wollan 2003)   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  In the background reading a list of criteria is given that outlines the advantages of e-commerce as it relates to operations management. The companies that are able to capitalize on these are the ones that will be successful. Wal-Mart is able to capitalize and continues to do so as it improves and expands into the e-commerce environment. Some of these advantages are: †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Better availability of service †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Cost reduction in information processing †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Better of timeliness of service †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Better access to customer markets †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Initial cost of operations less expensive †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Operating costs of operations less expensive †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Bet... ...Wal-Mart provides not only a Boolean search box but also some â€Å"pretty† tabs labeled with general names such as toys and electronics. But this is not special and is in fact pretty much the norm for companies that do business online. In other words, the Walmart.com website does not stand out from the crowd. As a matter of fact if you compare the Amazon.com websites to Walmart.com they look very similar. (Amazon 2005) I found the Dell website to be less friendly and almost irritating with the addition of pop-up ads that I had to close. (Dell, 2005) REFERENCES Amazon (2005) [Company web-site]. Retrieved June 19, 2005 from http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/subst/home/home.html/103-3903465-0764615 Dell Computers, (2005) [Company web-site]. Retrieved June 19, 2005 from http://www.dell.com/ Sullivan, Laurie. (2004, November, 8). E-Commerce: Promise Fulfilled. InformationWeek, 1013(3), 70. Wal-Mart. (2005). [Company web-site]. Retrieved on February 21, 2005, from http://www.walmart.com Wollan, M. L. (2003). E-commerce operations management. PowerPoint presentation for OPM 500, Module 5. Zimmerman, A. (2003, Nov. 21). To sell goods to Wal-Mart, get on the net. Wall Street Journal, B.1.

Language acquisition Essay

Chapter 1 Invitations to Linguistics 1. 1Why study language? 1. Language is very essential to human beings. 2. In language there are many things we should know. 3. For further understanding, we need to study language scientifically. 1. 2What is language? Language is a means of verbal communication. It is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. 1. 3Design features of language The features that define our human languages can be called design features which can distinguish human language from any animal system of communication. 1. 3. 1Arbitrariness Arbitrariness refers to the fact that the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meanings. 1. 3. 2Duality Duality refers to the property of having two levels of structures, such that units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization. 1. 3. 3Creativity Creativity means that language is resourceful because of its duality and its recursiveness. Recursiveness refers to the rule which can be applied repeatedly without any definite limit. The recursive nature of language provides a theoretical basis for the possibility of creating endless sentences. 1. 3. 4Displacement Displacement means that human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present (in time and space) at the moment of conversation. 1. 4Origin of language 1. The bow-wow theory In primitive times people imitated the sounds of the animal calls in the wild environment they lived and speech developed from that. 2. The pooh-pooh theory In the hard life of our primitive ancestors, they utter instinctive sounds of pains, anger and joy which gradually developed into language. 3. The â€Å"yo-he-ho† theory As primitive people worked together, they produced some rhythmic grunts which gradually developed into chants and then into language. 1. 5Functions of language As is proposed by Jacobson, language has six functions: 1. Referential: to convey message and information; 2. Poetic: to indulge in language for its own sake; 3. Emotive: to express attitudes, feelings and emotions; 4. Conative: to persuade and influence others through commands and entreaties; 5. Phatic: to establish communion with others; 6. Metalingual: to clear up intentions, words and meanings. Halliday (1994) proposes a theory of metafunctions of language. It means that language has three metafunctions: 1. Ideational function: to convey new information, to communicate a content that is unknown to the hearer; 2. Interpersonal function: embodying all use of language to express social and personal relationships; 3. Textual function: referring to the fact that language has mechanisms to make any stretch of spoken and written discourse into a coherent and unified text and make a living passage different from a random list of sentences. According to Hu Zhuanglin, language has at least seven functions: 1. 5. 1Informative The informative function means language is the instrument of thought and people often use it to communicate new information. 1. 5. 2Interpersonal function The interpersonal function means people can use language to establish and maintain their status in a society. 1. 5. 3Performative The performative function of language is primarily to change the social status of persons, as in marriage ceremonies, the sentencing of criminals, the blessing of children, the naming of a ship at a launching ceremony, and the cursing of enemies. 1. 5. 4Emotive function The emotive function is one of the most powerful uses of language because it is so crucial in changing the emotional status of an audience for or against someone or something. 1. 5. 5Phatic communion The phatic communion means people always use some small, seemingly meaningless expressions such as Good morning, God bless you, Nice day, etc. , to maintain a comfortable relationship between people without any factual content. 1. 5. 6Recreational function The recreational function means people use language for the sheer joy of using it, such as a baby’s babbling or a chanter’s chanting. 1. 5. 7Metalingual function The metalingual function means people can use language to talk about itself. E. g. I can use the word â€Å"book† to talk about a book, and I can also use the expression â€Å"the word book† to talk about the sign â€Å"b-o-o-k† itself. 1. 6What is linguistics? Linguistics is the scientific study of language. It studies not just one language of any one community, but the language of all human beings. 1. 7Main branches of linguistics 1. 7. 1Phonetics Phonetics is the study of speech sounds, it includes three main areas: articulatory phonetics, acoustic phonetics, and auditory phonetics. 1. 7. 2Phonology Phonology studies the rules governing the structure, distribution, and sequencing of speech sounds and the shape of syllables. 1. 7. 3Morphology Morphology studies the minimal units of meaning – morphemes and word-formation processes. 1. 7. 4Syntax Syntax refers to the rules governing the way words are combined to form sentences in a language, or simply, the study of the formation of sentences. 1. 7. 5Semantics Semantics examines how meaning is encoded in a language. 1. 7. 6Pragmatics Pragmatics is the study of meaning in context. 1.  8Macrolinguistics Macrolinguistics is the study of language in all aspects, distinct from microlinguistics, which dealt solely with the formal aspect of language system. 1. 8. 1Psycholinguistics Psycholinguistics investigates the interrelation of language and mind, in processing and producing utterances and in language acquisition for example. 1. 8. 2Sociolinguistics Sociolinguistics is a term which covers a variety of different interests in language and society, including the language and the social characteristics of its users. 1. 8. 3Anthropological linguistics. Anthropological linguistics studies the relationship between language and culture in a community. 1. 8. 4Computational linguistics Computational linguistics is an interdisciplinary field which centers around the use of computers to process or produce human language. 1. 9Important distinctions in linguistics 1. 9. 1Descriptive vs. prescriptive To say that linguistics is a descriptive science is to say that the linguist tries to discover and record the rules to which the members of a language-community actually conform and does not seek to impose upon them other rules, or norms, of correctness. Prescriptive linguistics aims to lay down rules for the correct use of language and settle the disputes over usage once and for all. For example, â€Å"Don’t say X. † is a prescriptive command; â€Å"People don’t say X. † is a descriptive statement. The distinction lies in prescribing how things ought to be and describing how things are. In the 18th century, all the main European languages were studied prescriptively. However, modern linguistics is mostly descriptive because the nature of linguistics as a science determines its preoccupation with description instead of prescription. 1. 9. 2Synchronic vs. diachronic A synchronic study takes a fixed instant (usually at present) as its point of observation. Saussure’s diachronic description is the study of a language through the course of its history. E. g. a study of the features of the English used in Shakespeare’s time would be synchronic, and a study of the changes English has undergone since then would be a diachronic study. In modern linguistics, synchronic study seems to enjoy priority over diachronic study. The reason is that unless the various state of a language are successfully studied it would be difficult to describe the changes that have taken place in its historical development. 1. 9. 3Langue & parole Saussure distinguished the linguistic competence of the speaker and the actual phenomena or data of linguistics as langue and parole. Langue is relative stable and systematic, parole is subject to personal and situational constraints; langue is not spoken by an individual, parole is always a naturally occurring event. What a linguist should do, according to Saussure, is to draw rules from a mass of confused facts, i. e. to discover the regularities governing all instances of parole and make them the subject of linguistics. 1. 9. 4Competence and performance According to Chomsky, a language user’s underlying knowledge about the system of rules is called the linguistic competence, and the actual use of language in concrete situations is called performance. Competence enables a speaker to produce and understand and indefinite number of sentences and to recognize grammatical mistakes and ambiguities. A speaker’s competence is stable while his performance is often influenced by psychological and social factors. So a speaker’s performance does not always match his supposed competence. Chomsky believes that linguists ought to study competence, rather than performance. Chomsky’s competence-performance distinction is not exactly the same as, though similar to, Saussure’s langue-parole distinction. Langue is a social product and a set of conventions of a community, while competence is deemed as a property of mind of each individual. Saussure looks at language more from a sociological or sociolinguistic point of view than Chomsky since the latter deals with his issues psychologically or psycholinguistically. 1. 9. 5Etic vs. emic Being etic means researchers’ making far too many, as well as behaviorally and inconsequential, differentiations, just as often the case with phonetics vs. phonemics analysis in linguistics proper. An emic set of speech acts and events must be one that is validated as meaningful via final resource to the native members of a speech community rather than via appeal to the investigator’s ingenuity or intuition alone. Following the suffix formations of (phon)etics vs (phon)emics, these terms were introduced into the social sciences by Kenneth Pike (1967) to denote the distinction between the material and functional study of language: phonetics studies the acoustically measurable and articulatorily definable immediate sound utterances, whereas phonemics analyzes the specific selection each language makes from that universal catalogue from a functional aspect. Chapter 2 Speech Sounds 2. 1Speech production and perception Phonetics is the study of speech sounds. It includes three main areas: 1. Articulatory phonetics – the study of the production of speech sounds 2. Acoustic phonetics – the study of the physical properties of the sounds produced in speech 3. Auditory phonetics – the study of perception of speech sounds Most phoneticians are interested in articulatory phonetics. 2. 2Speech organs Speech organs are those parts of the human body involved in the production of speech. The speech organs can be considered as consisting of three parts: the initiator of the air stream, the producer of voice and the resonating cavities. 2. 3Segments, divergences, and phonetic transcription 2. 3. 1Segments and divergences As there are more sounds in English than its letters, each letter must represent more than one sound. 2. 3. 2Phonetic transcription International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA): the system of symbols for representing the pronunciation of words in any language according to the principles of the International Phonetic Association. The symbols consists of letters and diacritics. Some letters are taken from the Roman alphabet, some are special symbols. 2. 4Consonants 2. 4. 1Consonants and vowels A consonant is produced by constricting or obstructing the vocal tract at some places to divert, impede, or completely shut off the flow of air in the oral cavity. A vowel is produced without obstruction so no turbulence or a total stopping of the air can be perceived. 2. 4. 2Consonants The categories of consonant are established on the basis of several factors. The most important of these factors are: 1. the actual relationship between the articulators and thus the way in which the air passes through certain parts of the vocal tract (manner of articulation); 2.where in the vocal tract there is approximation, narrowing, or the obstruction of the air (place of articulation). 2. 4. 3Manners of articulation 1. Stop/plosive: A speech sound which is produced by stopping the air stream from the lungs and then suddenly releasing it. In English, [? , ? , ? , ? , ? , ? ] are stops and [? , ? , ? ] are nasal stops. 2. Fricative: A speech sound which is produced by allowing the air stream from the lungs to escape with friction. This is caused by bringing the two articulators, e. g. the upper teeth and the lower lip, close together but not closes enough to stop the airstreams completely. In English, [?, ? , ? , ? , ? , ? , ? , ? , ? ] are fricatives. 3. (Median) approximant: An articulation in which one articulator is close to another, but without the vocal tract being narrowed to such an extent that a turbulent airstream is produced. In English this class of sounds includes [? , ? , ? ]. 4. Lateral (approximant): A speech sound which is produced by partially blocking the airstream from the lungs, usually by the tongue, but letting it escape at one or both sides of the blockage. [? ] is the only lateral in English. Other consonantal articulations include trill, tap or flap, and affricate. 2. 4. 4Places of articulation 1.Bilabial: A speech sound which is made with the two lips. 2. Labiodental: A speech sound which is made with the lower lip and the upper front teeth. 3. Dental: A speech sound which is made by the tongue tip or blade and the upper front teeth. 4. Alveolar: A speech sound which is made with the tongue tip or blade and the alveolar ridge. 5. Postalveolar: A speech sound which is made with the tongue tip and the back of the alveolar ridge. 6. Retroflex: A speech sound which is made with the tongue tip or blade curled back so that the underside of the tongue tip or blade forms a stricture with the back of the alveolar ridge or the hard palate. 7. Palatal: A speech sound which is made with the front of the tongue and the hard palate. 8. Velar: A speech sound which is made with the back of the tongue and the soft palate. 9. Uvular: A speech sound which is made with the back of the tongue and the uvula, the short projection of the soft tissue and muscle at the posterior end of the velum. 10. Pharyngeal: A speech sound which is made with the root of the tongue and the walls of the pharynx. 11. Glottal: A speech sound which is made with the two pieces of vocal folds pushed towards each other. 2. 4. 5The consonants of English Received Pronunciation (RP): The type of British Standard English pronunciation which has been regarded as the prestige variety and which shows no regional variation. It has often been popularly referred to as â€Å"BBC English† or â€Å"Oxford English† because it is widely used in the private sector of the education system and spoken by most newsreaders of the BBC network. A chart of English consonants |Manner of |Place of articulation | |articulation | | | |Bilabial |Labio- |Dental | | | |dental | | | | | | | | | | | | 2. Its advantages. Through IC analysis, the internal structure of a sentence may be demonstrated clearly, any ambiguities, if any, will be revealed in that IC analysis emphasizes not only the linear structure of the sentence but also the hierarchical structure of the sentence. E. g. the sentence Leave the book on the shelf. is ambiguous. It has two meanings: (1) Put the book on the shelf; (2) Don’t touch the book on the shelf. These two meanings can be shown by the following tree diagrams. (Omitted. See the textbook p125~128. ) 3. Its problems However, IC analysis has three disadvantages. First, at the beginning, some advocator insisted on binary divisions. Any construction, at any level, will be cut into two parts. But this is not possible. E. g. Old men and women is ambiguous in that it may mean old + men and women or old men + and women. It’s impossible to combine with only the preceding part or only the succeeding part. Second, constructions with discontinuous constituents will pose technical problems for tree diagrams in IC analysis. E. g. the phrasal verbs like make up, turn on, or give up will cause problems in that when the object is expressed by a pronoun, it will interrupt the phrasal verb as in make it up. The most serious problem is that there are structural ambiguities which cannot be revealed by IC analysis. E. g. the tree diagram and the labels can only do one analysis for the love of God. 4. 2. 3Endocentric and exocentric constructions An endocentric construction is one whose distribution is functionally equivalent, or approaching equivalence, to one of its constituents, which serves as the center, or head, of the whole. It is also called headed construction. Typical endocentric constructions are noun phrases, verb phrases and adjective phrases. They may be further divided into two subtypes: subordinate and coordinate constructions. Those, in which there is only one head, with the head being dominant and the other constructions dependent, are subordinate constructions. In the coordinate construction, there are more than one head, e. g. boys and girls, in which the two content constituents, boys and girls, are of equal syntactic status, and no one is dependent on the other. The exocentric construction is defined negatively as a construction whose distribution is not functionally equivalent to any of its constituents. There is no noticeable center or head in it. Typical exocentric constructions are prepositional phrases, subordinate clauses, English basic sentences, and the verb plus object constructions. 4. 3The generative approach 4. 3. 1Deep and surface structures In transformational generative grammar (a. k. a. T-G grammar), the deep structure may be defined as the abstract representation of the syntactic properties of a construction, i. e. the underlying level of structural relations between its different constituents, such as the relation between the underlying subject and its verb, or a verb and its object. The surfaces structure is the final stage in the syntactic derivation of a construction, which closely corresponds to the structural organization of a construction people actually produce and receive. The example for the surface structure is The newspaper was not delivered today. The deep structure of the above sentence would be something like: (negative) someone (past tense) deliver the newspaper today (passive). The items in brackets are not lexical items but grammatical concepts which shape the final form of the sentence. Rules which describe deep structure are in the first part of the grammar (base component). Rules which transform these structures into surface structures (transformational rules) are in the second part of the grammar (transformational component). 4. 3. 2The standard theory and after What is the trace theory? [I think this is difficult. It is too abstract for me. – icywarmtea] After the movement of an element in a sentence there will be a trace left in the original position. This is the notion trace in T-G grammar. It’s suggested that if we have the notion trace, all the necessary information for semantic interpretation may come from the surface structure. E. g. The passive Dams are built by beavers. differs from the active Beavers built dams. in implying that all dams are built by beavers. If we add a trace element represented by the letter t after built in the passive as Dams are built t by beavers, then the deep structure information that the word dams was originally the object of built is also captured by the surface structure. Trace theory proves to be not only theoretically significant but also empirically valid. 4. 3. 3Government, binding, etc. 1. Constituent command / C-command: ? c-commands ? if ? does not dominate ? and every ? that dominates ? also dominates ? , as shown in the diagram below: | |?| | | | | | | | | | |? | |? | 2. Binding theory: Part of the government / binding theory. It examines connections between noun phrases in sentences and explores the way they relate and refer to each other. (1)An anaphor is bound in its governing category. (2)A pronominal is free in its governing category. (3)An r-expression is free. 3. Binding: The notion binding is borrowed from logic, which refers to the relation between a quantifier and a variable, that is a variable is bound by a quantifier. In the generative approach, binding refers to the relation between different referring word and the subject of a sentence  containing it. 4. Anaphor: A process where a word or phrase refers back to another word or phrase which was used earlier in a text or conversation. In a narrow sense, it used to include only reflexives like myself and reciprocals like each other. 5. Pronominal: A pronominal refers to pronouns other than reflexives and reciprocals. 6. R-expression: A r-expression, as the abbreviation of a referential-expression, covers all the other r-expressions except anaphors and pronominals, e. g. John, Bill, the man. 7. The D-structure and the S-structure. In Government / Binding theory, the D-structure is an abstract level of sentence representation where semantic roles such as an agent (the doer of an action) and patient (the entity affected by an action) are assigned to the sentence. Agent is sometimes also referred to as the logical subject and patient as the rheme of the sentence. E. g. (in simplified form) Verashootintruders Agent or logical subjectpatient or rheme The next level of sentence representation is the S-structure where syntactic / grammatical cases such as nominative / grammatical subject and accusative / grammatical object are assigned. E. g.(in simplified form)Vera (agent)shootintruders (patient / rheme) Grammatical subjectgrammatical object The phonetic form (PF) component and the logical form (LF) component are then needed to turn the S-structure into a surface sentence. The PF component presents the S-structure as sound, and the LF component gives the syntactic meaning of the sentence. 4. 4The functional approach 4. 4. 1Functional sentence perspective 1. Functional sentence perspective (FSP) The functional sentence perspective (FSP) is a type of linguistic analysis associated with the Prague School which describes how information is distributed in sentences. FSP deals particularly with the effect of the distribution of known information and new information in discourse. The known information (known as theme), refers to information that is not new to the reader or listener. The rheme refers to information that is new. FSP differs from the traditional grammatical analysis of sentences because the distribution between subject-predicate is not always the same as theme-rheme contrast. E. g. (1)Johnsat in the front seat Subjectpredicate Themerheme (2)In the front seat satJohn. Predicatesubject Themerheme John is the grammatical subject in both sentences, but theme in (1) and rheme in (2). 2. Communicative dynamism (CD) By CD Firbas means the extent to which the sentence element contributes to the development of the communication. 4. 4. 2Systemic-functional grammar 1. The material process (a process of doing): the representation of outer experience. 2. The mental process (a process of sensing): the representation of inner experience. 3. The relational process (a process of being): the relation between one experience and another. 4. The behavioral process (a process of behavioring): physiological and psychological behavior. 5. The verbal process (a process of saying): any kinds of symbolic exchange of meaning. 6. The existential process (a process of happening): a representation of something in existence or happening/ These six processes form a circle as follows: (omitted. See textbook, p. 155) Chapter 5 Meaning 5. 1Meanings of â€Å"meaning† 1. Meaning: Meaning refers to what a language expresses about the world we live in or any possible or imaginary world. 2. Connotation: The additional meaning that a word or phrase has beyond its central meaning. 3. Denotation: That part of the meanings of a word or phrase that relates it to phenomena in the real world or in a fictional or possible word. 4. Different types of meaning (Recognized by Leech, 1974) (1)Conceptual meaning: Logical, cognitive, or denotative content. (2)Associative meaning a. Connotative meaning: What is communicated by virtue of what language refers to. b. Social meaning: What is communicated of the social circumstances of language use. c. Affective meaning: What is communicated of the feelings and attitudes of the speaker / writer. d. Reflected meaning: What is communicated through association with another sense of the same expression. e. Collocative meaning: What is communicated through association with words which tend to occur in the environment of another word. (3)Thematic meaning: What is communicated by the way in which the message is organized in terms of order and emphasis. 5. The difference between meaning, concept, connotation, and denotation Meaning refers to the association of language symbols with the real world. There are many types of meaning according to different approaches. Concept is the impression of objects in people’s mind. Connotation is the implied meaning, similar to implication. Denotation, like sense, is not directly related with objects, but makes the abstract assumption of the real world. 5. 2The referential theory 1. The referential theory: The theory of meaning which relates the meaning of a word to the thing it refers to, or stands for, is known as the referential theory. 2. The semantic triangle theory Ogden and Richards presented the classic â€Å"Semantic Triangle† as manifested in the following diagram, in which the â€Å"symbol† refers to the linguist elements (word, sentence, etc. ), the â€Å"referent† refers to the object in the world of experience, and the â€Å"thought† or â€Å"reference† refers to concept or notion. Thus the symbol of a word signifies â€Å"things† by virtue of the â€Å"concept,† associated with the form of the word in the mind of the speaker of the language. The concept thus considered is the meaning of the word. The connection (represented with a dotted line) between symbol and referent is made possible only through â€Å"concept. † Concept / notion Thought / reference [pic] ———————- Symbolobject Wordstands for reality Signifierreferent. Codesignified 5. 3Sense relations 5. 3. 1Synonymy Synonymy is the technical name for the sameness relation. 5. 3. 2Antonymy Antonymy is the name for oppositeness relation. There are three subtypes: gradable, complementary and converse antonymy. 1. Gradable antonymy Gradable antonymy is the commonest type of antonymy. They are mainly adjectives, e. g. good / bad, long / short, big / small, etc. 2. Complementary antonymy The members of a pair in complementary antonymy are complementary to each other. That is, they divide up the whole of a semantic filed completely. Not only the assertion of one means the denial of the other, the denial of one also means the assertion of the other, e. g. alive / dead, hit / miss, male / female, boy / girl, etc. 3. Converse antonymy Converse antonyms are also called relational opposites. This is a special type of antonymy in that the members of a pair do not constitute a positive-negative opposition. They show the reversal of a relationship between two entities, e. g. buy / sell, parent / child, above / below, etc. 5. 3. 3Hyponymy Hyponymy involves us in the notion of meaning inclusion. It is a matter of class membership. That is to say, when x is a kind of y, the lower term x is the hyponym, and the upper term y is the superordinate. Two or more hyponyms of the same one superordinate are called co-hyponyms, e. g. under flower, there are peony, jasmine, tulip, violet, rose, etc. , flower is the superordinate of peony, jasmine, etc. , peony is the hyponym of flower, and peony, jasmine, tulip, violet, rose, etc. are co-hyponyms. 5. 4Componential analysis Componential analysis defines the meaning of a lexical element in terms of semantic components. That is, the meaning of a word is not an unanalyzable whole. It may be seen as a complex of different semantic features. There are semantic units smaller than the meaning of a word. E. g. Boy: [+human][-adult][+male] Girl: [+human][-adult][-male] Son: child (x, y) & male (x) Daughter: child (x, y) & -male (x) Take: cause (x, (have (x, y))) Give: cause (x, (-have (x, y))) 5. 5Sentence meaning 5. 5. 1An integrated theory 1. Compositionality: A principle for sentence analysis, in which the meaning of a sentence depends on the meanings of the constituent words and the way they are combine. 2. Selection restrictions: Restrictions on the choice of individual lexical units in construction with other units. E. g. the word breathe will typically select an animate subject (boy, man, woman, etc. ) not an abstract or an inanimate (table, book, etc. ). The boy was still breathing. The desk was breathing. 5. 5. 2Logical semantics 1. Prepositional logic / prepositional calculus / sentential calculus: Prepositional logic is the study of the truth conditions for propositions: how the truth of a composite proposition is determined by the truth value of its constituent propositions and the connections between them. 2. Predicate logic / predicate calculus: Predicate logic studies the internal structure of simple propositions. Chapter 6 Language Processing in Mind 6. 1Introduction 1. Language is a mirror of the mind in a deep and significant sense. 2. Language is a product of human intelligence, created a new in each individual by operation that lie far beyond the reach of will or consciousness. 3. Psycholinguistics â€Å"proper† can perhaps be glossed as the storage, comprehension, production and acquisition of language in any medium (spoken or written). 4. Psycholinguistics is concerned primarily with investigating the psychological reality of linguistic structures. 5.  The differences between psycholinguistics and psychology of language. Psycholinguistics can be defined as the storage, comprehension, production and acquisition of language in any medium (spoken or written). It is concerned primarily with investigating the psychological reality of linguistic structures. On the other hand, the psychology of language deals with more general topics such as the extent to which language shapes thought, and from the psychology of communication, includes non-verbal communication such as gestures and facial expressions. 6.  Cognitive psycholinguistics: Cognitive psycholinguistics is concerned above all with making inferences about the content of the human mind. 7. Experimental psycholinguistics: Experimental psycholinguistics is mainly concerned with empirical matters, such as speed of response to a particular word. 6. 1. 1Evidence 1. Linguists tend to favor descriptions of spontaneous speech as their main source of evidence, whereas psychologists mostly prefer experimental studies. 2. The subjects of psycholinguistic investigation are normal adults and children on the one hand, and aphasics—-people with speech disorders—–on the other. The primary assumption with regard to aphasic patient that a breakdown in some part of language could lead to an understanding of which components might be independent of others. 6. 1. 2Current issues 1. Modular theory: Modular theory assumes that the mind is structured into separate modules or components, each governed by its own principles and operating independently of others. 2. Cohort theory: The cohort theory hypothesizes that auditory word recognition begins with the formation of a group of words at the perception of the initial sound and proceeds sound by sound with the cohort of words decreasing as more sounds are perceived. This theory can be expanded to deal with written materials as well. Several experiments have supported this view of word recognition. One obvious prediction of this model is that if the beginning sound or letter is missing, recognition will be much more difficult, perhaps even impossible. For example: Gray tie—— great eye; a name—–an aim; an ice man—–a nice man; I scream—–ice cream; See Mable—-seem able; well fare—-welfare; lookout——look out ; decade—–Deck Eight; Layman——laymen; persistent turn——persist and turn 3. Psychological reality: The reality of grammar, etc. as a purported account of structures represented in the mind of a speaker. Often opposed, in discussion of the merits of alternative grammars, to criteria of simplicity, elegance, and internal consistency. 4. The three major strands of psycholinguistic research: (1)Comprehension: How do people use their knowledge of language, and how do they understand what they hear or read? (2)Production: How do they produce messages that others can understand in turn? (3)Acquisition: How language is represented in the mind and how langua.